Acum câțiva ani o bună prietenă m-a ajutat să îl am invitat pe Owen Mountford la cursul de Managementul diversității biologice. Owen este un ecolog excelent, un iubitor al naturii din România, și un mare prieten la românilor și al României.
Cândva i-am spus că este un good scientist, dar el m-a contrazis. Sunt mai degrabă un "naturalist", mi-a zis. Adică unul din specia și în continuarea lui Darwin, așa cum lumea anglo-saxonă are tradiția și cum la noi au fost Antipa și Botnariuc. Un observator și un interpret al naturii, nu un manager al perfomanței academice și al publicării ISI ca scop în sine. Un om pentru care a publica serios este ca și cum ai respira, un produs secundar al seriozității, pentru că este o modalitate de a-i respecta pe ceilalți, pe partenerii de dialog.
Cine vrea să înțeleagă acest mod de a fi să citească ediția a șasea din Originea Speciilor, în care Darwin acordă permanent atenție criticilor aduse de colegii din domeniu edițiilor anterioare ale operei lui.
La Darwin evaluarea teoriei propuse ca fiind cunoaștere sau nu se face printr-un efort care implică mintea cititorului, căruia autorul i se adresează în mod direct (sintagmele “bear, borne, bearing in mind” apar de 32 de ori, sintagmele „keep, kept in mind” de 3 ori). În anexa acestei postări ofer o selecție de citate semnificative în această privință.
După cum poate constata orice om de bună credință după citirea anexei sistemul peer review își are originea în modul de gândire al cercetătorilor occidentali din secolul XIX, cu surse și mai vechi din vremea lui Newton.
Spre finalul prelegerii lui Owen despre care vorbeam a venit rândul întrebărilor, iar un student mai idealist, impresionat de nivelul conferențiarului, s-a ridicat și întrebat următoarea întrebare:
Ce să facem noi în România ca să ajungem la nivelul din Marea Britanie?
Răspunsul lui Owen a fost foarte simplu și direct. Cu un ton cald, dar puțin îndurerat a spus:
Put the standards high and keep them ! (Impuneți-vă standarde ridicate de calitate a rezultatelor muncii și nu renunțați la ele !).
Dacă Roma este civilizația și cultura, iar Cartagina este opulența barbară obținută prin lenea gândirii și furt, spun și eu la nesfârșit precum Cato cel Bătrân: Cartagina trebuie distrusă !
Traducere pe înțelesul tuturor: din facultatea noastră copiatul și plagiatul trebuie să dispară !
Vrem standarde occidentale ! Cine are urechi de auzit, să audă !
Anexa postării
Nr | Citat | Comentariu |
1 | „On the theory of natural selection we can clearly understand the full meaning of that old canon in natural history, "Natura non facit saltum." This canon, if we look to the present inhabitants alone of the world, is not strictly correct; but if we include all those of past times, whether known or unknown, it must on this theory be strictly true.” (p104) | Semnificația afirmațiilor teoretice generale depinde de modul cum sunt interpretate printr-o teorie științifică. |
2 | „On this view of the meaning of embryological resemblances, and indeed on any view, it is incredible that an animal should have undergone such momentous and abrupt transformations as those above indicated, and yet should not bear even a trace in its embryonic condition of any sudden modification, every detail in its structure being developed by insensibly fine steps.” (p123), “On the theory of descent, the full meaning of the fossil remains from closely consecutive formations, being closely related, though ranked as distinct species, is obvious” (p180) “Rudimentary organs plainly declare their origin and meaning in various ways.” (p228) “We see the full meaning of the wonderful fact, which has struck every traveller, namely, that on the same continent...” (p240) | Observațiile (judecățile descriptive despre fapte) au un înțeles, o semnificație, un sens. Semnificația lor depinde de modul cum sunt înglobate în teoria științifică. |
3 | „that community of descent is the hidden bond which naturalists have been unconsciously seeking, and not some unknown plan of creation, or the enunciation of general propositions, and the mere putting together and separating objects more or less alike.. But I must explain my meaning more fully. I believe that the ARRANGEMENT of the groups within each class, in due subordination and relation to each other, must be strictly genealogical in order to be natural; but that the AMOUNT of difference in the several branches or groups, though allied in the same degree in blood to their common progenitor, may differ greatly” (p214) “The mind cannot possibly grasp the full meaning of the term of even a million years; it cannot add up and perceive the full effects of many slight variations, accumulated during an almost infinite number of generations.” (p242) | Sensul afirmaților dintr-o teorie depinde de mintea persoanei care produce teoria. |
4 | „With respect to the direct action, we must bear in mind that in every case, as Professor Weismann has lately insisted, and as I have incidently shown in my work on "Variation under Domestication," there are two factors: namely, the nature of the organism and the nature of the conditions” (p17) “Nothing is easier than to admit in words the truth of the universal struggle for life, or more difficult−−at least I found it so−−than constantly to bear this conclusion in mind.” (p40) “In looking at Nature, it is most necessary to keep the foregoing considerations always in mind−−never to forget that every single organic being may be said to be striving to the utmost to increase in numbers; that each lives by a struggle at some period of its life; that heavy destruction inevitably falls either on the young or old during each generation or at recurrent intervals. […] Here I will make only a few remarks, just to recall to the reader's mind some of the chief points.” (p42) “every naturalist will be able to call such cases before his mind” (p65) | Reprezentările despre natura organismelor, a mediului lor și a proceselor în care sunt implicate sunt în minte. Înțelesul acestor reprezentări depinde de teoria care dă seama de ele și de modul cum este ea înțeleasă de mintea celui căruia i se comunică teoria, faptele care o susțin și argumentele |
5 | “Naturalists frequently speak of the skull as formed of metamorphosed vertebrae; the jaws of crabs as metamorphosed legs; the stamens and pistils in flowers as metamorphosed leaves; but it would in most cases be more correct, as Professor Huxley has remarked, to speak of both skull and vertebrae, jaws and legs, etc., as having been metamorphosed, not one from the other, as they now exist, but from some common and simpler element. Most naturalists, however, use such language only in a metaphorical sense: they are far from meaning that during a long course of descent, primordial organs of any kind−−vertebrae in the one case and legs in the other−−have actually been converted into skulls or jaws. Yet so strong is the appearance of this having occurred that naturalists can hardly avoid employing language having this plain signification. According to the views here maintained, such language may be used literally;” (p222) | Prin trecerea de la o teorie la alta sensul acelorași judecăți descriptive se schimbă |
6 | “In the earlier editions of this work I underrated, as it now seems probable, the frequency and importance of modifications due to spontaneous variability. But it is impossible to attribute to this cause the innumerable structures which are so well adapted to the habits of life of each species. I can no more believe in this than that the well−adapted form of a race−horse or greyhound, which before the principle of selection by man was well understood, excited so much surprise in the minds of the older naturalists, can thus be explained.” (p106) “Nevertheless the simplicity of the view that each species was first produced within a single region captivates the mind” (p187) | Trecerea de la accceptarea unor afirmații teoretice ca fiind cunoaștere la acceptarea altora este graduală și implică mecanisme psihologice. |
7 | “Thus a distinguished German naturalist has asserted that the weakest part of my theory is, that I consider all organic beings as imperfect” (p104), | Teoria are mai multe părți |
8 | “But I am well aware that these general statements, without the facts in detail, can produce but a feeble effect on the reader's mind. I can only repeat my assurance, that I do not speak without good evidence.” (p126) “As this whole volume is one long argument, it may be convenient to the reader to have the leading facts and inferences briefly recapitulated.” (p232) | Influențarea deciziei celui cu care comunicăm de a accepta sau respinge o teorie ca fiind cunoaștere științifică se face pe bază de dovezi factuale detaliate, de argumente. Părțile teoriei sunt organizate sub forma unui argument. |
9 | “Although “I am fully convinced of the truth of the views given in this volume under the form of an abstract, I by no means expect to convince experienced naturalists whose minds are stocked with a multitude of facts all viewed, during a long course of years, from a point of view directly opposite to mine. It is so easy to hide our ignorance under such expressions as the "plan of creation," "unity of design," etc., and to think that we give an explanation when we only restate a fact. Any one whose disposition leads him to attach more weight to unexplained difficulties than to the explanation of a certain number of facts will certainly reject the theory. A few naturalists, endowed with much flexibility of mind, and who have already begun to doubt the immutability of species, may be influenced by this volume; but I look with confidence to the future, to young and rising naturalists, who will be able to view both sides of the question with impartiality.” (p242) | Acceptarea adevărului unei teorii are două etape, una are loc în mintea autorului teoriei, alta are loc prin supunerea teoriei considerate adevărate de autor evaluării de către publicul avizat. Deciziile publicului avizat se iau în mințile acestora în funcție de reprezentările pe care le au. Deciziile depind și de aspecte neștiințifice, de preferințe subiective, formate în funcție de alte tipuri de discursuri (religioase, morale) |
10 | “for if this had been so, it would have been fatal to my theory” (p38) “On our theory the continued existence of lowly organisms offers no difficulty” (p67), “yet we ought, on our theory, sometimes to find the varying offspring of a species assuming characters which are already present in other members of the same group. And this undoubtedly is the case.” (p82), “if my theory be true, numberless intermediate varieties, linking closely together all the species of the same group, must assuredly have existed “ (p88) “a belief which it has been pronounced is subversive of my whole theory” (p101), “Many instincts are so wonderful that their development will probably appear to the reader a difficulty sufficient to overthrow my whole theory” (p124), “both cases must stand or fall together with the whole theory of natural selection” (p129), “I will not here enter on these several cases, but will confine myself to one special difficulty, which at first appeared to me insuperable, and actually fatal to the whole theory” (p137) “Long before the reader has arrived at this part of my work, a crowd of difficulties will have occurred to him. Some of them are so serious that to this day I can hardly reflect on them without being in some degree staggered; but, to the best of my judgment, the greater number are only apparent, and those that are real are not, I think, fatal to the theory.” (p85) | Teoria aparține unui autor. Pentru a susține o teorie în fața altor persoane autorul trebuie arate cum sunt interpretate faptele, să afirme existența unor fapte care încă nu au fost observate, să identifice și să respingă pe cât posibil toate contraargumentele posibile. |
11 | “We shall never, probably, disentangle the inextricable web of the affinities between the members of any one class; but when we have a distinct object in view, and do not look to some unknown plan of creation, we may hope to make sure but slow progress. Professor Haeckel in his "Generelle Morphologie" and in another works, has recently brought his great knowledge and abilities to bear on what he calls phylogeny, or the lines of descent of all organic beings. In drawing up the several series he trusts chiefly to embryological characters, but receives aid from homologous and rudimentary organs, as well as from the successive periods at which the various forms of life are believed to have first appeared in our geological formations.” (p220) | Teoria preferabilă este cea cu valoare euristică mai mare, care permite progresul cunoașterii științifice |
12 | “A distinguished zoologist, Mr. St. George Mivart, has recently collected all the objections which have ever been advanced by myself and others against the theory of natural selection, as propounded by Mr. Wallace and myself, and has illustrated them with admirable art and force. When thus marshalled, they make a formidable array; and as it forms no part of Mr. Mivart's plan to give the various facts and considerations opposed to his conclusions, no slight effort of reason and memory is left to the reader, who may wish to weigh the evidence on both sides.” (p 109) | Teoria făcută publică este parte din proiecte de explicare ștințifică ale mai multor oameni, apărarea ei necesită resurse de timp și efort pentru că proiectele de a explica folosind teoria nouă se află în competiție cu alte proiecte de explicare. |
13 | “I formerly spoke to very many naturalists on the subject of evolution, and never once met with any sympathetic agreement. It is probable that some did then believe in evolution, but they were either silent or expressed themselves so ambiguously that it was not easy to understand their meaning. Now, things are wholly changed, and almost every naturalist admits the great principle of evolution.” (p243) | Succesul public al unei teorii este gradual, de la absența oricărui alte persoane care să o accepte în afară de autor, la acceptarea de către majoritatea persoanelor avizate cel puțin a unor părți (principii) ale teoriei |
14 | “How fleeting are the wishes and efforts of man! How short his time, and consequently how poor will be his results, compared with those accumulated by Nature during whole geological periods! Can we wonder, then, that Nature's productions should be far "truer" in character than man's productions; that they should be infinitely better adapted to the most complex conditions of life, and should plainly bear the stamp of far higher workmanship?” (p48) | Produsele omului sunt mult inferioare produselor naturii, eforturile umane sunt nesemnificative comparativ cu procesele naturale |
15 | Great is the power of steady misrepresentation; but the history of science shows that fortunately this power does not long endure.” (p241) “It can hardly be supposed that a false theory would explain, in so satisfactory a manner as does the theory of natural selection, the several large classes of facts above specified.” (p242) | Teoriile sunt reprezentări în mintea umană. Teoriile pot fi adevărate sau false. Falsitatea se evaluează în funcție de explicarea sau nu de către teorie a faptelor din natură. |
16 | “It is no valid objection that science as yet throws no light on the far higher problem of the essence or origin of life. Who can explain what is the essence of the attraction of gravity? No one now objects to following out the results consequent on this unknown element of attraction; notwithstanding that Leibnitz formerly accused Newton of introducing "occult qualities and miracles into philosophy."” | Faptul că teoriile se bazează pe concepte sau presupoziții care nu pot fi explicate nu atrage falsitatea lor, atâta vreme cât explică numeroase fapte |
17 | “How the sense of beauty in its simplest form−−that is, the reception of a peculiar kind of pleasure from certain colours, forms and sounds−−was first developed in the mind of man and of the lower animals, is a very obscure subject. The same sort of difficulty is presented if we enquire how it is that certain flavours and odours give pleasure, and others displeasure. Habit in all these cases appears to have come to a certain extent into play; but there must be some fundamental cause in the constitution of the nervous system in each species.” (p102) “Familiarity alone prevents our seeing how largely and how permanently the minds of our domestic animals have been modified” (p127) | Nu doar omul, ci și animalele au minte. Este neclar cum a apărut mintea și trăsăturile ei prin evoluție naturală, dar o explicație prin cauze naturale trebuie să existe. |
18 | „In the future I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be securely based on the foundation already well laid by Mr. Herbert Spencer, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. Much light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history” | Mintea omului a evoluat în timp. Cercetarea modului cum a evoluat este o direcție de cercetare pentru viitor |
19 | With respect to the belief that organic beings have been created beautiful for the delight of man−−a belief which it has been pronounced is subversive of my whole theory−−I may first remark that the sense of beauty obviously depends on the nature of the mind, irrespective of any real quality in the admired object; and that the idea of what is beautiful, is not innate or unalterable. We see this, for instance, in the men of different races admiring an entirely different standard of beauty in their women. (p101) | Există proprietăți relaționale între minte și obiectul natural, cum este frumusețea. Mintea are o natură complet diferită de a organismelor care ne apar ca frumoase. |
20 | „Nothing impresses the mind with the vast duration of time, according to our ideas of time, more forcibly than the conviction thus gained that subaerial agencies, which apparently have so little power, and which seem to work so slowly, have produced great results.”(p158) “So that the lofty pile of sedimentary rocks in Britain gives but an inadequate idea of the time which has elapsed during their accumulation. (p158) “The consideration of these various facts impresses the mind almost in the same manner as does the vain endeavour to grapple with the idea of eternity.” (p159) | Judecățile descriptive despre schimbarea naturii în timp depind de ideile noastre despre timp și de teoriile despre natură pe care le considerăm adevărate. |
21 | “Nothing at first can appear more difficult to believe than that the more complex organs and instincts have been perfected, not by means superior to, though analogous with, human reason, but by the accumulation of innumerable slight variations, each good for the individual possessor. He thus adapts animals and plants for his own benefit or pleasure. He may do this methodically, or he may do it unconsciously by preserving the individuals most useful or pleasing to him without any intention of altering the breed.” (p232), “man can and does select the variations given to him by nature, and thus accumulates them in any desired manner” (p236), “no slight effort of reason and memory is left to the reader, who may wish to weigh the evidence on both sides.” (p109) | Mecanismul evoluției naturale este analog rațiunii umane. Rațiunea umană este implicată în producerea raselor și soiurilor prin selecție artificală în funcție de scopuri. Rațiunea umană alege teorii alternative în minte în funcție de anumite criterii în vederea atingerii unui scop de cunoaștere și face apel la memorie pentru a ține dovezile în minte. |
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